Characterization of rockfalls in Cappadocia region (Türkiye) by empirical and 3-Dimensional methods

Rockfall hazards pose significant risks to both cultural heritage and populated areas, necessitating comprehensive assessment methodologies. Despite extensive research on rockfalls, only a small number of studies have directly compared empirical methods with modelling approaches. This study investigated rockfalls in five settlements within the Cappadocia region of Türkiye, employing both empirical methods and advanced three-dimensional (3D) probabilistic modeling. The energy line angle approach was applied to identify rockfall propagation zones, while high-resolution digital surface models derived from unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) imagery facilitated detailed 3D rockfall simulations. Cappadocia's unique geological setting—comprising alternating layers of ignimbrites and weaker fluvio-lacustrine deposits—renders it highly susceptible to rockfalls intensified by wetting–drying and freeze–thaw cycles. Results indicate that rockfall propagation characteristics vary markedly between settlements: Göre and Tatlarin exhibit shorter runout distances due to basalt-dominated slopes, whereas Akköy, Soğanlı and Şahinefendi display longer trajectories associated with welded ignimbrites. Empirical cone propagation analyses correspond broadly with field observations, but variations in energy line angles (23°–33°) highlight the necessity for site-specific calibration. Comparative evaluations demonstrate that 3D probabilistic modeling better captures local-scale block dynamics and identifies high-risk areas affected by topographic and structural features such as rockfall ditches. These findings emphasize the importance of integrating empirical and 3D approaches to improve hazard zoning, optimize mitigation structures and guide the protection of Cappadocia's unique cultural heritage landscape.