Geo-spatial assessment of human-induced soil erosion and environmental hazard using the RUSLE model: A path toward sustainable land management in the Duhok Watershed

Soil erosion is a significant driver of land degradation in semi-arid environments. This study applied the Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) integrated with GIS and remote sensing to estimate annual soil loss in the Duhok watershed of northern Iraq. At 12.5 m resolution, the watershed was categorized into five erosion hazard levels based on rainfall, soil, slope, land cover, and conservation practices. The results show that 44.4% of the area faces very high erosion hazard, while 3.5% faces extremely high hazard. Overlaying land use and land cover data with erosion zones revealed that agricultural, built-up, and barren lands are disproportionately exposed to high to extremely high soil loss. These findings highlight the influence of human activities such as farming, urban expansion, and damming on erosion dynamics. The study identifies priority sites for soil conservation and provides a decision-support framework for sustainable watershed management.