Vegetation-environment relationship in conifer dominating forests of the mountainous range of Indus Kohistan in northern Pakistan

Environmental variables play a crucial role in shaping vegetation structure, mainly in mountainous ecosystems. Different studies have attempted to identify the environment-vegetation relationship of Conifer Dominating Forests (CDF) worldwide. However, due to differences in local climate and soil composition, different environmental drivers can be found. By applying multivariate analysis techniques, this study investigated the vegetation-environment relationship of CDF of Indus Kohistan in northern Pakistan. Our results showed that CDF of Indus Kohistan are distributed in five distinct ecological groups, which are dominated by different trees and understory species. A total of 7 trees and 71 understory species were recorded from the sampling sites. Cedrus deodara was the leading species among four groups, having the highest importance value (Ⅳ), density and basal area. Group Ⅰ was dominated by Pinus wallichiana with the second highest importance value, density and basal area. In addition, elevation, slope, maximum water holding capacity (MWHC), soil moisture (SM), total organic matter (TOM), sodium, phosphorus and nickel showed highly significant influence on composition and distribution pattern of Indus Kohistan vegetation. Therefore, this study shows a new evidence of vegetation-environment relationship, pointing out specific drivers of vegetation structure in CDF of Indus Kohistan region in northern Pakistan.